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Karibu
Understanding Islamic Monotheism
Like most religions, there are several sects (see Appendix 1). Here we have tried to emphasize what most Muslims hold in common.
The strength of Islam is neither in its rituals nor in its ethics, but in its grasp of one great idea: monotheism. Among the religions of the world there is not one that has a shorter creed than Islam and not one whose creed is so well known and so often repeated. The whole system of Muslim theology, philosophy, and religious life is summed up in seven words: La ilaha illa Allah, Muhammad rasul Allah, "There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is Allah's Apostle." This is the motto of the Muslim's family life, the ritualistic formula that welcomes the infant as a believer, and the final message that is whispered in the ear of the dying. By repeating these words, the unbeliever is transformed into a Muslim and the backslider is welcomed back into a spiritual brotherhood. By this creed the faithful are called to prayer five times daily, and it is the platform on which all the warring sects of Islam unite. It is the very foundation of the Islamic religion.
Since the idea of God is fundamental to Islam, this chapter will analyze the doctrine of God as presented in the Qur'an and orthodox Islamic theology. First, we will consider the significance of the very word for God, "Allah." Second, we will attempt to explain the nature and character of God as understood by orthodox Muslims. Third, we will focus our discussion on the relationship that exists between God and the rest of his creation, especially human beings.
Meaning of the Term "Allah"
Allah is the personal name for God in Islam. We make no distinction in this book, as some do, between the word "Allah" and the English word "God." As one well-known Muslim author puts it, "Al Lah means 'the Divinity' in Arabic: it is a single God, implying that a correct transcription can only render the exact meaning of the word with the help of the expression 'God.' For the Muslims, al lah is none other than the God of Moses and Jesus."
In agreement with this warning, Kenneth Cragg, the noted Christian scholar of Islam, also claims that "since both Christians and Muslim faiths believe in One supreme sovereign Creator-God, they are obviously referring when they speak of Him, under whatever terms, to the same Being. To suppose otherwise would be confusing. It is important to keep in mind that though the apprehensions differ, their theme is the same. The differences, which undoubtedly exist, between the Muslim and the Christian understanding of God are far-reaching and must be patiently studied. But it would be fatal to all our mutual tasks to doubt that One and the same God over all was the reality in both." Arab Christians use the term "Allah" for God. Of course, their understanding of what this term means differs from that of Muslims, but both have the same referent in mind.
Etymology of the Word "Allah"
There has been much speculation and endless discussion among Muslim exegetes and lexicographers concerning the real significance of the Arabic word "Allah." A well-respected Muslim commentator, Beidhawi, suggests that Allah is derived "from an [invented] root illaha = to be in perplexity, because the mind is perplexed when it tries to form the idea of the Infinite!" From the famous Muslim exegete Beidhawi (d. a.d. 1307), as cited by Zwemer, 24. Still, "according to the opinion of some Muslim theologians, it is infidelity (kufr) to hold that the word has any derivation whatever!... They say that God is not begotten, and so His name cannot be derived. He is the first, and had an Arabic name before the creation of the worlds." Related from Muhammad by Abu Huraira and cited by Zwemer in the famous Muslim exegete Beidhawi (d. a.d. 1307), 24. The author of the Muheet-el-Muheet dictionary says: "Allah is the name of necessary Being. There are twenty different views as to the derivation of this name of the Supreme; the most probable is that its root is illah, the past participle form, or the measure fi'al, from the verb ilaho = to worship, to which the article was prefixed to indicate the supreme object of worship." From the famous Muslim exegete Beidhawi (d. a.d. 1307), as cited by Zwemer, 23.
Ajijola, a Muslim author and apologist, writes, "In the Arabic Language the word 'ilah' means 'one who is worshipped'.... The word 'Allah', on the other hand, is the essential personal name of God. 'La ilaha ilia-Allah' would literally mean, 'There is no "ilah" other than the One Great Being known by the name Allah.'"
Cragg, in his highly acclaimed work The Call of the Minaret, notes, "The Arabic form ilahun meaning 'a god' is similar to the Hebrew and Aramaic words for deity. When used with the definite article Al-Ilahu meaning 'The God' the l consonant of the article coalesces with the same letter in the first syllable of the word eliding the i sound to make Allah. If we take the word to be of genuine Arabic form this is the obvious origin. If, as some scholars believe, the word does not have this origin but is historically derived from a sister language, its significance is the same. Allah means 'God' which connotation English achieves by dismissing even the definite article and using the capital letter—a device which Arabic lacks."
Pre-Islamic Use of the Word "Allah"
Even if the exact etymology of the word "Allah" cannot be determined with certainty, one thing we can be sure about from historical records is that the Arabs of pre-Islamic days, despite all their idolatry, knew of and acknowledged Allah's existence as the supreme God. In proof of this point Cragg comments: "It is clear from the negative form of the Muslim creed, 'There is no god except God,' that the existence and lordship of Allah were known and recognized in pre-Islamic Arabia. The Prophet's mission was not to proclaim God's existence but to deny the existence of all lesser deities. The fact that Muhammad's own father bore the name Abd-Allah, slave of God, would indicate that God was known by that name prior to Islam." Cragg goes on to say that "There can be no doubt then that the Prophet's contemporaries knew of a Supreme Being, but He did not dominate their minds. Rather they thought more directly and frequently of the lesser gods, the daughters, perhaps even the sons, of Allah who were far more intimately related to their daily lives, their wars, their harvests, and their fertility."
Zwemer makes a similar point: "But history establishes beyond the shadow of a doubt that even the pagan Arabs, before Mohammed's time, knew their chief god by the name of Allah and even, in a sense, proclaimed His unity. In pre-Islamic literature, Christian or pagan, ilah is used for any god and Al-ilah (contracted to Allah), i.e., 'ο Θεός, the god, was the name of the Supreme. Among the pagan Arabs this term denoted the chief god of their pantheon, the Kaaba, with its three hundred and sixty idols.... As final evidence, we have the fact that centuries before Mohammed the Arabian Kaaba, or temple at Mecca, was called Beit-Allah, the house of God, and not Beit-el-Alihet, the house of idols or gods."
Muhammad's Adaptation of the Word "Allah"
Some Western scholars have speculated about Muhammad's adaptation of the word "Allah" for the one and only true God. Richard Bell writes, "Muhammad had, in fact, to meet the difficulty which... confronts all those who seek to introduce a high religion amongst a people of primitive ideas, whose language has no term for God quite free from polytheistic associations. He begins by using rabb, 'Lord', generally in some combination, such as 'my Lord', 'thy Lord', or as we have seen, 'Lord of this house'." Bell adds, "He also uses Allah, but rather hesitatingly, [maybe]... because it was already combined with belief in subordinate deities. Then ar-Rahman appears alongside it. The use of too many names, however, had its disadvantages." This he believes "might lend colour to polytheistic ideas again. He seems to have solved the difficulty finally by adopting Allah as the name for Deity, retaining rabb in the sense of Lord, and associating with both words, descriptive epithets, and phrases." Apparently, "these set phrases were convenient as rhyming conclusions to verses. But they also had their use in dinning into the minds of his community his conception of God as all-powerful, all-knowing, as Judge and Ruler, as glorious, merciful, and compassionate."
Of course we must understand that from the orthodox Muslim viewpoint any such Western speculations about Muhammad's adaptation and use of the term "Allah" in the Qur'an is unacceptable (see Chapter 5). Nevertheless, the important point on which all could agree is that Muhammad's great revolutionary achievement lies not in his mere use of the term "Allah," but in his conception of Allah and Allah's character.
The Nature of Allah
Allah's Existence and Oneness
Sura 112 is dedicated to the fundamental question "Who is God?" According to Islamic tradition, this chapter is Muhammad's definition of Allah. Classical commentator Zamakhshari (d. a.d. 1146) says, "Ibn Abbas related that the Koreish said, O Mohammed, describe to us your Lord whom you invite us to worship; then this Surah was revealed." The sura reads: "In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful. Say: He is God, The One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, Nor is He begotten; And there is none Like unto Him." This sura "is held to be worth a third of the whole Qur'an and the seven heavens and the seven earths are founded upon it. To confess this verse, a tradition affirms, is to shed one's sins as a man might strip a tree in autumn of its leaves."
The cornerstone of Muhammad's message was the absolute unity and sovereignty of God. In inviting his people to join him in the worship and service of the one true God he presents several arguments in defense of God's existence. The existence of God is not taken for granted in the Qur'an. Rather, it points out many ways in which reason leads to belief that God exists.
In over eighty passages the Qur'an draws attention to the wonders of visible nature in the heavens and on earth, as well as to the manifestations of life in plants and animals, especially in the realm of human life. Likewise, the physical, moral, and mental constitution of man, his origin and destiny, and the course of his history are appealed to as evidence of God's existence. Thus, there are two principal starting points for reflection about God's existence: the order of nature and the order of life. As the Qur'an puts it, "Verily in the heavens And the Earth are Signs For those who believe. And in the creation Of yourselves the fact That animals are scattered (through the earth), are signs For those of assured Faith" (45:3-4; cf. 51:20-21; 41:53). The Qur'an notes that there are signs (ayat) for those who use their reason (ya'kilun), who reflect (yatafakkarun) and understand (yaf-kahun); to those endowed with mental or reasoning faculties (il-uli al-albab, li-uli al-nuha), who hear (yasma'un), who have eyes (uli al-absar), who know (ya'lamun), believe (yu'minun), and are convinced (yu-kinun). Thus, all the basic sensible and intellectual capacities of human beings are appealed to as starting points in our knowledge of God.
Zwemer categorizes the Qur'anic arguments for God in the following way: "The passages of the Koran that teach the existence and unity of God (Allah) are either those that refer for proof of His unity to creation (6:96-100; 16:3-22; 27:60-65; etc.), or state that polytheism and atheism are contrary to reason (23:119), or that dualism is self-destructive (21:22), or bring in the witness of former prophets (30:29; 21:25; 39:65; 51:50-52)."
In addition to arguments for God's existence, the Qur'an invites its audience to the worship of one God by using various graphic figures of speech and analogies. Those who call a god apart from Allah are like someone who stretches out his hands to water, that it may reach his mouth, but it will never reach it (13:14). Those who take for themselves protectors apart from Allah are like the spiders, who make for themselves houses that are the frailest of all (29:41). Whosoever associates anything with Allah is like someone who has fallen from the sky. Birds snatch him away or the wind sweeps him down into a bottomless pit.
The Qur'an uses two words to describe the oneness of God, ahad and wahid. Ahad is used as an adjective. It is employed in two suras to deny that God has any partner or companion associated with him. In Arabic, this form means the negation of any other number. The second word, wahid, may mean the same thing as the first word, and is used this way many times in the Qur'an. However, it also has another usage: "the One, Same God for all." That is to say, there is only one God for Muslims, and he is the same God for all peoples. Thus, both God's unity and singularity are implied in the Muslim concept of God's oneness.
This emphasis on the Oneness of God is such a fundamental aspect of Islam that one Muslim author writes, "In fact, Islam, like other religions before it in their original clarity and purity, is nothing other than the declaration of the Unity of God, and its message is a call to testify to this Unity." Another Muslim writer expresses a similar point: "The Unity of Allah is the distinguishing characteristic of Islam. This is the purest form of monotheism, i.e., the worship of Allah Who was neither begotten nor beget nor had any associates with Him in His Godhead. Islam teaches this in the most unequivocal terms."
It is due to this uncompromising emphasis on God's absolute unity that in Islam the greatest of all sins is the sin of shirk, or assigning partners to God. The Qur'an sternly declares "God forgiveth not [The sin of] joining other gods with Him; but He forgiveth Whom He pleaseth other sins Than this: one who joins Other gods with God, Hath strayed far, far away [From the Right]" (4:116).
Other Characteristics of Allah
Besides the great truth of God's Oneness, or the doctrine of tawhid, which is an ever-present reminder on the pages of the Qur'an, what else are we to learn about God and his character? According to one Muslim authority, late professor of Islamic thought in the University of Chicago, Fazlur Rahman (d. 1988), "the Qur'an is no treatise about God and His nature: His existence, for the Qur'an, is strictly functional—He is the Creator and Sustainer of the universe and of man, and particularly the giver of guidance for man and He who judges man, individually and collectively, and metes out to him merciful justice." The accuracy of Rahman's comment is substantiated when we consult a number of Muslim works on Islam and find very little on the subject of God's essence and character, except the sense in which the ninety-nine names for God are believed to reflect the character of God. For example, in Introduction to Islam, written by Muhammad Hameedullah, we find chapters on the political system, judicial system, and economic system of Islam, but no chapter on the being and character of God! Some other contemporary books have devoted no more than a page or two to this topic. However, it must be pointed out that within the last 1,400 years, several Muslim schools of thought have formulated many doctrinal statements on theology proper.
One Muslim author writes: "God is the essence of existence. His Arabic name is Allah. He is The First and The Last. He is unique and nothing resembles Him in any respect. He is One and The One. He is self-sustained, does not need anything but everything needs Him." This attribute is known as aseity, or self-existence. God is the Mighty and the Almighty. He is the Wilier of existing things and the things that will exist, and nothing happens apart from his will. He is the Knower of all that can be known. His knowledge encompasses the whole universe that he has created and he alone sustains. God is completely sovereign over all his creation.
Further, "God comprehends everything, even suggestions of the mind, and the concealed secrets in the innermost part of breasts of men. God is Living.... He is The All Hearing of all audible things. He is The All Seeing." And "He speaks with an eternal Speech not resembling the speech of created things. God's Might, Will, Knowledge, Life, Hearing, Seeing and Speech are inherent attributes in Him, and not a thing or things apart from him."
God is the Just, the Wise, the Merciful, the Compassionate, the Beneficent, the Eternal, the Creator, the Omnipresent, and the Lord of the universe. There is no god but God. In the words of the Qur'an, "God! There is no god But He—the Living, The Self-subsisting, Eternal. No slumber can seize Him Nor sleep. His are all things In the heavens and on earth. Who is there can intercede In His presence except As He permitteth? He knoweth What [appeareth to His creatures As] Before or After Or Behind them. Nor shall they compass Aught of His knowledge Except as He willeth. His Throne doth extend Over the heavens And the earth, and He feeleth No fatigue in guarding And preserving them For He is the Most High, The Supreme [in glory]" (2:255).
Muslims ascribe to God all the noble names and attributes that befit his holy character. However, traditionally they insist on learning and remembering the following thirteen attributes specifically: "Existence, Eternity, Perpetuity, Dissimilarity, Self-Sustenance, Unity, Might, Will, Knowledge, Life, Hearing, Sight and Speech."
Another concise statement of orthodox Islam confesses: "The Originator of the world is God Most High, the One, the Eternal, the Decreeing, the Knowing, the Hearing, the Seeing, the Willing. He is not an attribute, nor a body, nor an essence, nor a thing formed, nor a thing bounded, nor a thing numbered, nor a thing divided, nor a thing compounded, nor a thing limited: He is not described by quiddity, mahiyah, nor by modality, kaifiyyah, and He does not exist in place or time. There is nothing that resembles Him and nothing that is beyond His Knowledge and Power. He has qualities from all eternity existing in His essence. They are not He, nor are they other than He. These include Knowledge and Power, and life and Strength, and Hearing and Seeing and Doing and Creating and Sustaining and Speech."
One contemporary Muslim writer concisely describes the Islamic view of God in this way: "In attempting to understand the nature and works of God, we learn that: God is only One without a partner or son. He is the Creator of the universe and everything that is to be found in the universe. He is the Compassionate and Merciful and His mercy is to all creatures." Further, "He is just. He is the Guide and Guardian of everything. He is pre-existent and eternal. He is all-knowing and all-wise. He is loving and provident, and His mercy for His creatures knows no boundary. He is all-powerful and the Supreme Master of all the worlds. He is holy and cannot commit sins or do evil. He is independent and unique."
The Ninety-nine Names of Allah
Another typical Islamic answer to the question "Who is God?" is to point out Allah's "most beautiful names." The Qur'anic basis for this is found in 59:22-24:
God is He, than Whom There is no other god; Who knows [all things] Both secret and open; He, Most Gracious, Most Merciful. God is He, than Whom There is no other god; The Sovereign, the Holy One, The Source of Peace [and Perfection], The Guardian of Faith, The Preserver of Safety, The Exalted in Might, The Irresistible, the Supreme: Glory to God! [High is He] Above the partners They attribute to Him. He is God, the Creator, The Evolver, The Bestower of Forms [Or Colours]. To Him belong The Most Beautiful Names: Whatever is in The heavens and on earth, Doth declare His Praise and Glory: And He is the Exalted In Might, the Wise.
Besides this Qur'anic admonition, the Islamic tradition relates that "Muhammad said, 'Verily, there are ninety-nine names of God and whoever recites them shall enter Paradise.'" Regarding Allah's most beautiful names, Arthur Jeffery, the great European Islamicist, comments: "The lists of these names as found in the texts vary greatly.... Redhouse in his article in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1880 collected from various lists no less than 552 different names for Allah." Stanton, another well-known Islamicist, also comments that "these names are reckoned by the traditionalist Abu Hurairah as ninety-nine.... Taking this list as a basis, we find that twenty-six of the ninety-nine names are not found in the Qur'an in the form given, though they are based on passages which give something near it." "Their variety is explained in part by the poetic style of the Qur'an, which tended to the use of rhyming endings, derived from a much smaller number of original roots with nuances or shades of adjectival meaning."
Jeffery lists one sample of the ninety-nine names of God as found in the book Tasbih Asma Allah al-Husna written by Muhammad al-Madani:
Allah, the Name that is above every name.
al-Avowal, the First, who was before the beginning (57:3).
al-Akhir, the Last, who will still be after all has ended (57:3).
al-Badi, the Contriver, who contrived the whole art of creation (2:117).
al-Bari, the Maker, from whose hand we all come (59:24).
al-Barr, the Beneficent, whose liberality appears in all his works (52:28).
al-Basir, the Observant, who sees and hears all things (57:3).
al-Basit, the Spreader, who extends his mercy to whom he wills (13:26).
al-Batin, the Inner, who is immanent within all things (57:3).
al-Baith, the Raiser, who will raise up a witness from each community (6:89, 91).
al-Baqi, the Enduring, who is better and more enduring (20:73, 75).
at-Tawwab, the Relenting, who relented toward Adam and relents to all his descendants (2:37).
al-Jabbar, the Mighty One, whose might and power are absolute (59:23).
al-Jalil, the Majestic, mighty and majestic is he.
al-Jami, the Gatherer, who gathers all men to an appointed Day (3:9).
al-Hasib, the Accounter, who is sufficient as a reckoner (4:6-7).
al-Hafiz, the Guardian, who keeps watch over everything (11:57, 60).
al-Haqq, the Truth (20:114).
al-Hakem, the Judge, who gives judgment among his servants (40:48, 51).
al-Hakim, the Wise, who is both wise and well informed (6:18).
al-Halim, the Kindly, who is both forgiving and kindly disposed (2:225).
al-Hamid, the Praiseworthy, to whom all praise is due (2:267, 270).
al-Hayy, the Living, who is the source of all life (20:111).
al-Khabir, the Well-informed, who is both wise and well informed (6:18).
al-Khafid, the Humbler, who humbles some while he exalts others (cf. 56:3).
al-Khaliq, the Creator, who has created all things that are (13:16-17).
Dhul-Jalal wal-Ikram, Lord of Majesty and Honor (55:27).
ar-Rauf, the Gentle, who is compassionate toward his people (2:143).
ar-Rahman, the Merciful, the most merciful of those who show mercy (1:3; 12:64).
ar-Rahim, the Compassionate, who is gentle and full of compassion (1:3; 2:143).
ar-Razzaq, the Provider, who provides but asks no provision (51:57-58).
ar-Rashid, the Guide, who leads believers in the right-minded way (11:87,89).
ar-Rafl, the Exalter, who exalts some while he humbles others (6:83).
ar-Raqib, the Watcher, who keeps watch over his creation (5:117).
as-Salam, the Peace-Maker, whose name is Peace (59:23).
as-Sami, the Hearer, who sees and hears all things (17:1).
ash-Shakur, the Grateful, who graciously accepts the service of his people (64:17).
ash-Shahid, the Witness, who is witness to all things (5:117).
as-Sabur, the Forebearing, who has great patience with his people.
as-Samad, the Eternal, who begets not and is not begotten (112:2).
ad-Darr, the Afflicter, who sends affliction as well as blessing (48:11).
az-Zahir, the Outer, who is without as well as within (47:3).
al-Adl, the Just, whose word is perfect in veracity and justice (6:115).
al-Aziz, the Sublime, mighty in his sublime sovereignty (59:23).
al-Azim, the Mighty, he who above all is high and mighty (2:255-56).
al-Afuw, the Pardoner, ever ready to forgive his servants (4:99-100).
al-Alim, the Knowing One, who is well aware of everything (2:29).
al-Ali, the High One, he who is high and mighty (2:255-56).
al-Ghafur, the Forgiving, who is both forgiving and well disposed (2:235).
al-Ghaffar, the Pardoning, ever ready to pardon and forgive (71:10).
al-Ghani, the Rich, since it is he who possesses all things (2:267, 270).
al-Fattah, the Opener, who clears and opens up the Way (34:26).
al-Qabid, the Seizer, who both holds tight and is open-handed (2:245-46).
al-Qadir, the Able, who has the power to do what he pleases (17:99,101).
al-Quddus, the Most Holy One, to Whom all in heaven and on earth ascribe holiness (62:1).
al-Qahhar, the All-Victorious, who overcomes all (13:16-17).
al-Qawi, the Strong, sublime in his strength and his power (13:19).
al-Qayyum, the Self-Subsistent, eternally existing in and for himself alone (3:2).
al-Kabir, the Great One, who is both high and great (22:62).
al-Karim, the Munificent, who is not only rich but generous (27:40).
al-Latif, the Gracious, whose grace extends to all his servants (42:19).
al-Mutaakhkhir, the Defender, who when he wills defers punishment (14:42-43).
al-Mumin, the Faithful, who grants security to all (59:23).
al-Mutaali, the Self-Exalted, who has set himself high above all (13:9-10).
al-Mutakabbir, the Proud, whose pride is in his works (59:23).
al-Matin, the Firm, firm in his possession of strength (51:58).
al-Mubdi, the Originator, who both originates and restores (85:13).
al-Mujib, the Answerer, who responds when his servants call (11:61, 64).
al-Majid, the Glorious, praiseworthy and glorious is he (11:73, 76).
al-Muhsi, the Computer, who has counted and numbered all things (19:94).
al-Muhyi, the Quickener, who quickens and brings to life the dead (30:50).
al-Mudhill, the Abaser, who raises to honor or abases whom he will (3:26).
al-Muzil, the Separator, who will separate men from the false gods they vainly worship (10:28-29).
al-Musawwir, the Fashioner, who fashions his creatures how he pleases (59:24).
al-Muid, the Restorer, who both originates and restores (85:13).
al-Muizz, the Honorer, who honors or abases whom he will (3:26).
al-Muti, the Giver, from whose hand comes all good things (20:50, 52).
al-Mughni, the Enricher, who enriches men from his bounty (9:74-75).
al-Muqit, the Well-Furnished, provided with power over all things (4:85, 87).
al-Muqtadir, he who prevails, having evil men in his powerful grip (54:42).
al-Muqaddim, the Bringer-Forward, who sends his promises on ahead (50:28).
al-Muqsit, the Observer of Justice, who will set up the balances with justice (21:47-48).
al-Malik, the King, who is king of kings (59:23).
Malik al-Mulk, Possessor of the Kingdom, who grants sovereignty to whom he will (3:26).
al-Mumit, he who causes to die, just as he causes to live (15:23).
al-Muntaqim, the Avenger, who wreaks vengeance on sinners and succors the believers (30:47).
al-Muhaimin, the Preserver, whose watchful care is over all (59:23).
an-Nasir, the Helper, and sufficient as a helper is he (4:45, 47).
an-Nur, the light, illuminating both earth and heaven (24:35).
al-Hadi, the Guide, who leads believers in the straight path (22:54).
al-Wahed, the One, unique in his Divine sovereignty (13:16-17).
al-Wahid, the Unique, who alone has created (74:11).
al-Wadud, the Loving, compassionate and loving to his servants (11:90, 92).
al-Warith, the Inheritor, unto whom all things will return (19:40-41).
al-Wasi, the Wide-Reaching, whose bounty reaches all (2:268, 271).
al-Wakil, the Administrator, who has charge of everything (6:102).
al-Waliy, the Patron, and a sufficient patron is he (4:45, 47).
al-Wali, the Safeguard, other than whom men have no sure guard (13:11-12).
al-Wahhab, the Liberal Giver, who gives freely of his bounty (3:8).
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