MAHELO. E.B
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COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR ALL LEVELS BY:Edwin B. Mahelo
Copyright 2011 by;
Edwin B. Mahelo
P.O.BOX 6389, Mwanza, Tanzania
dogomahelo@yahoo.com
SPONSORED BY;
Sr. Denise Mattle
Montessori Training Centre
P.O.BOX 6428, Mwanza, Tanzania.
EDITED BY;
Gerald Otieno Njura
Assistant lecturer
Dept of Linguistics and Languages
St. Augustine University of Tanzania
P.O.BOX 307, Mwanza, Tanzania.
ISBN 978 9987 8961 9 6
First published, 2011.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or stored in retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, be it electronically, technically, photocopying or otherwise without the prior written permission from the Author.
This book (First publish) is free to you although some parts and contents are missing. You can get the full parts and contents through BUYING the original copy of the book from either bookshops around your area or ordering it from the author of the book.
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COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR ALL LEVELS (Second publish) written by E.B. MAHELO.
- Also a book is useful to individual person especially workers, farmers, entrepreneurs, etc.
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Enjoy communicating, enjoy your life.
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CONTENTS.
Preface
Acknowledgement
Chapter one: INTRODUCTIO TO COMMUNICATION.
Introduction .
Elements of communication .
Barriers of communication ..
Channels and medium of communication ..
Principles of effective communication
Chapter two: SOURCES OF INFORMATION.
Introduction
Sources of information
Chapter three: WRITING SKILLS.
Introduction
Difference between writing and talking
Kinds of writing skills ..
Techniques of writing skills ..
Note taking
Note making .
Chapter four: LETTER WRITING.
Introduction
Elements of a good letter .
Informal letters
Parts of informal letters
Formal letters
Parts of formal letters ..
Chapter five: ORAL PRESENTATION:
Introduction
Presentation preparation .
Types of oral presentation ..
General purpose of oral presentation ..
Qualities of a good speaker .
Methods of oral presentation ..
Main parts of oral presentation
Things to be considered when making an oral presentation ...
Effectiveness of oral presentation
Chapter six: READING SKILLS.
Introduction .
The speaker reading strategy
Types of reading skills .
Chapter seven: RESUME AND CURRICULUM VITAE.
Introduction .
Resume .
Ways of organizing a resume
Curriculum vitae
Components of curriculum vitae
Uses of curriculum vitae
Chapter eight: REFERENCING SKILLS.
Introduction ..
Ways of writing a reference in a text (citation) ..
List of references and bibliography
Bibliography ..
Chapter nine: PUNCTUATION.
Introduction
Punctuation
Chapter ten: MEMORANDUM, MEETING AND MINUTES.
Introduction ..
Memorandum ..
Meeting .
Minutes
Chapter eleven: WORD FORMATION.
Introduction ..
Word formation processes .
Chapter twelve: ESSAY AND REPORT WRITING.
Introduction ..
Parts of an essay ..
Features of a good essay ..
Types of essay writing ..
Qualities of a good essay .
Report writing ......
Structure of a report
Purpose of a report ..
Similarities and differences between a report and an essay
Chapter thirteen: TESTING AND QUESTIONING.
Introduction ..
Testing ..
Types of testing
Purpose for testing
Types of tests
Questioning ..
Purpose of questioning .
Classification of questions .
Techniques of questioning
Characteristics of good questions .
PREFACE
On top of that, the author has struggled for years collecting various sources so as to make this book helpful and lucrative to its readers. So its not a book to miss.
Lastly, I would to extend my precious wishes to you all, in academic success. God bless you abundantly.
Rev. Godwin M. Gunewe
Bishop Peniel Bible Fellowship Church
Mwanza-Tanzania.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Any accomplishment requires the effort of many people. And this book is not different. Therefore, I would like to give my precious thanks to the following;
- The almighty God who is the source of all knowledge.
- My parents, Mr & Mrs. Mahelo Bihemo.
- Sr. Denise Mattle for her financial support.
- Mr. Gerald Otieno Njura who is the editor of this book.
- Mr. Deus W. Lutalagula for his moral support.
- Rev. Godwin M. Gunewe who is the writer of the preface.
Edwin B. Mahelo
June, 2011
Chapter one INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
According to the book of Genesis, God created the world using words. Man uses words to pass information to others. Man also uses non verbal medium to pass both intentional and non intentional messages.
Wherever people live, they always need to communicate with each other.
What is communication?
Communication is the process of transferring information from one person to another and it can occur across vast distances in time and space. The communication process is complete once the receiver has understood the message sent by the sender and given back an appropriate feedback.
Types of communication
The types of communication can be classified using different approaches. These approaches include Medium of transmission, Nature of the communication process and The purpose of communication.
- Verbal communication
- Non verbal communication
- Interpersonal communication
- Intrapersonal communication
Forms of verbal communication
As outlined above, verbal communication refers to the type of communication that uses words. When these words are spoken, the type of communication is known as oral communication but when these words are written down, the type of communication is known as written communication.
Essentials of communication:
· Individuals must adapt their communication to a variety of settings based on the role they are assuming in the interaction.
· Individuals must also make daily decisions about the appropriateness of the messages they are communicating.
Components/elements of communication:
i. Sender/initiator.
ii. Receiver/recipient.
iii. Medium/ method/ channel.
iv. Massage.
v. Feedback/effect/action.
vi. Noise.
A diagram showing components/elements of communication
| Message |
| Channel/medium |
| Feedback |
| Receiver |
| Sender |
Barriers of communication:
a) Physical barrier. This happens due to the nature of the environment where the communication process is taking place. For instance, natural and man made factors can interfere with the communication process. Mountains, lakes, forests are among the obstacles that can hinder the communication process.
b) Psychological barrier. This involves peoples state of mind. When we are happy, we all tend to be more receptive to information. But if someone has a personal problem like worries about their health or marriage, then this will probably affect their concentration on a communication process.
c) Differences in perception. Based on how one views the world, the mind absorbs your experiences in a unique and personal way. Because your perceptions are unique, the ideas you want to express differ from other people. But even when two people have experienced the same event, their mental images of that event will not be identical.
d) Language barrier. The language that describes what we want to say in our terms may be a barrier to others who are not familiar with our language. Communicating in such a language is a way of excluding others.
e) Gender barrier. There are distinct differences between the speech patterns in men and women. A woman speaks more words compared to a man.
Amongst children, girls speak earlier than boys, and at the age of three, girls have a vocabulary twice that of boys.
NOISE
Noise is anything that interferes with a message being transmitted from a sender to the receiver. It results from both internal and external factors.
Types of noise
Physical noise
Physical noise is any external or environmental stimulus that distracts a person from receiving the intended message sent by the sender.
Psychological noise
Psychological noise is a mental interference that prevents a person from listening. It results from preconceived notions we bring to conversation such as reputations, biases and assumptions.
Physiological noise
Physiological noise is any physiological issue that interferes with communication. For example, when a person is having a very painful headache, it may be difficult to speak to others or listen to them at the time they speak to him/her.
Semantic noise
Semantic noise occurs when there is no shared meaning in a communication process. It usually happens when the sender uses terminologies of his/her profession that lay people may not understand.
Channels and medium of communication
Communication media is a channel or path for sending a message between communicators.
Early methods
Early societies developed systems for sending simple messages or signals that could be seen or heard over a short distance e.g. drumbeats, messengers, fire and smoke signals or lantern beacons.
For example, the among the Sukuma people, the chief would order his service persons to call people for the public gathering by use of drumbeats.
Telephone
Is aninstrument that sends and receives voice messages and data. Telephones convert speech and data to electronic energy.
Radio
Is aninstrument that receives voice messages. Radio converts speech to electromagnetic waves.
Television
A system of sending and receiving pictures and sound by means of electronic signals transmitted through wires and optical fibers or by electromagnetic radiation.
Telegraph
A system of communication that employs electrical apparatus to transmit and receive signals in accordance with a code of electrical pulses.
Postal services
The postal offices function as a collection and delivery point for letters, and parcels such as books, magazines and newspapers
Internet
When the computer is connected to the internet, the information in digital form is displayed on the computer screen.
Principles of effective communication
Communication demands a few essentials for effective transfer of messages. For example, in writing emails, facilitating meetings, participating in conference calls, report writing, devising presentations, debating with colleagues etc.
1. Courteous
Try hard to present yourself from a position of reliability and make it more believable. Understand what you are explaining to the audience or public through watching gender, language and proper titles.
2. Coherent
The communication ought to be logical. The ideas need to flow from one point to the next through smooth transitions. The examples given must relate to the thing that is talked or explained about and this can be achieved by outlining messages, writing simple sentences and focusing each paragraph on one idea.
3. Clear
When writing or speaking to someone, be clear about your goal or message. The message must be clearly understood and people should be able to interpret it. If you are not sure about your purpose in communicating with the person, then your audience will not be sure either.
4. Concise
Stick to the point and keep it brief. In order for the message to be read by busy people make them brief by saying what you need to say and say no more while maintaining goodwill of the course. The communicator must consider the channel through which to communicate his/her message.
5. Complete
The message should include all necessary facts and background information because the audience has every reason to be informed and if possible take action. This means that there should be a good flow of the story starting from introduction, body and conclusion.
6. Correct
Communication is correct or error-free communication if it fits the audience. One must assess the capability of the audience in terms of literacy, economic ability to afford using the type of channel. Correctness in writing includes spelling, grammar, punctuation and format.
7. Concrete
The audience should have a clear picture of what you are telling them. What is in the message must be relevant to the audience according to their environment.
EXERCISE
1. Differentiate between communication and communication skills.
2. Why communication is important to our school?
3. Illustrate types and components of communication.
4. Identify the barriers to effective communication and how it affects the school performance.
each.
Chapter two SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Information can be defined as communicated facts or ideas. It can also be said to be data to which meaning has been given within a context for its use. Further more, information can be defined as anything that can change a persons knowledge and reduce uncertainty.
Ways of acquiring information
Information can be acquired through the following ways;
▪ Through life experiences
▪ Studying and learning
Places where organized information may be found
- Libraries and their collections
- Museums
- Exhibitions, fairs, shows
A. Library
A library is a special building or room in which a collection of books and other various information or materials for reading, study, reference or learning takes place.
The word library comes from Latin word Liber meaning book.
Libraries are categorized according to the need of the learner. For example, public libraries, school libraries, college and university libraries, research libraries, special libraries and government libraries.
The students use libraries to supplement and enhance their classroom experience, to learn skills in locating sources of information and to develop good reading and study habits.
In order to determine which information to search, decide from what perspective (e.g. business, political, cultural, social, historical, psychological, anthropological, education etc) you want to approach your topic.
Materials in the library fall under two broad categories.
i) Reference materials
These are materials which the users of a library are not allowed to take away from the library. They usually include materials that are in very few copies or those whose demand is high.
ii) Lending materials
These refer to materials which the library users may borrow or take away to use outside the library. They are usually kept in the main shelves.
Books in the library are usually categorized/catalogued using both the subject and author procedures. The catalogue will have a card that has the book title, authors name, publisher, call number and date of publication. From the catalogue card, one gets the book number that one uses to locate a book from the shelves.
Types of libraries
a) Public library
This is a library that has a library system that provides general services and unrestricted success free of charge to all residents of a given community, district or geographical region.
b) Special public library
This is a library that is funded and managed by foreign missions in a given country. They mainly promote the culture and tradition of the funding nation and the host nation plays no part in its funding or management.
c) National library
This refers to the libraries designated and funded by a national government to serve the nation as a comprehensive collection of the published and unpublished materials, including publications of the government itself. Some countries e.g. USA have several national libraries.
d) Special library
This is a library established and funded by a commercial firm, association, NGOs, non-profit organizations, special interest groups to meet the needs of the employees, members of staff in accordance with the organizations goals and missions.
The scope of the collection is limited to the interest of the whole organization.
e) School library
This is a library established to meet the needs of students and staff of schools and other institutions of secondary learning and below.
f) Academic library
These are libraries in universities, colleges and other institutions of higher learning. They are meant to further the aims and objectives of the concerned institution by;
- Developing collections of relevant information resources to support the teaching process.
- To teach students how to identify, locate, evaluate and effectively use the appropriate sources. Examples include the SAUT library, UDOM library, etc.
g) Virtual library
This is a library without walls; collections do not exist in papers, microfilm, or any tangible form but is accessible electronically. They are also called digital library or e-library.
B. Digital source of information
Internet is the computer based global information system. The computer is composed of many interconnected computer networks. Each network may link tens, hundreds or even thousands of computers enabling them to share information and processing power. The internet has brought new opportunities to education. Educational institutions have the internet for searching and to deliver online courses and course materials to students.
Search engine is the software program that helps users to find information stored on a network of computers such as the internet. Search engines are most often used to find pages, files, news, image and other data on the web.
Some of the most popular web search engines include Google Inc, Microsoft Network (MSN) search and Yahoo! INC.
The internet has become a valuable source of information. One can find all sorts of information from online information providers. One only types the topic that he/she wants to search on then a variety of articles are displayed.
Advantages of digital sources
- Digital information is more current that library publications
- Digital information can be searched, sorted and saved in a disk, computer so one does
C. Print media
These include such sources as newspapers, magazines, notices, journals and pamphlets. They should be chosen carefully to suit the kind of information being sought after.
Reference materials
Reference materials are specifically complied to supply factual information of varying extent brought together from many sources and intended for reference only rather than to read through.
Examples of reference works are;
i) The dictionary
Dictionary is a book that gives a list of words in alphabetical order and explains what they mean. A dictionary may also list words in one language and gives translations in another language. For example, English - Kiswahili dictionary.
Sometimes a dictionary contains pronunciations, syllabifications, etymologies (word histories) and examples of usage.
Examples of English to English dictionaries
- Macmillan English dictionary
- Oxford English dictionary
Important details to look for in a dictionary include;
- Word meaning
- Spelling
ii) The encyclopedia
The word encyclopedia is derived from Greek enkyklios paideia meaning all embracing education. The term was originally signifying instruction which included grammar, rhetoric, music, mathematics, philosophy, astronomy and gymnastics.
This concept gave rise to the idea of collecting the materials of such instruction into a single work, in which the contents and relations of the various arts and sciences would be expounded systematically.
An encyclopedia is a reference material containing information on a variety of topics. This information may be supplied in short paragraphs or in lengthy articles that include citations to other works on the same topic.
EXERCISE
1. What is subject catalogues?
2. How can you use index pages to select appropriate information?
3. What is internet? How do you use internet as a source of information?
4. Analyse various types of dictionaries and encyclopedia you know.
WRITING SKILLS
Writing is a process that involves the use of a pen, a pencil or a similar instrument to make words, numbers or symbols.
Writing refers to an attempt by an individual to put his/her thoughts on paper in order to pass a message to an audience.
Writing skills are specific abilities which help writers put their thoughts into words in a meaningful form and to mentally interact with the massage.
Writing skills help the learner to gain the ability to function in a given area without depending upon anothers help, to understand something, to read, speak or write easily, smoothly or expressively and express the writers thoughts and feelings in an imaginative, often unique and poetic way in writing. If the learners have mastered these skills, they will be able to write so that not only can they read what they have written, but also other speakers of that language can read and understand it.
Kinds of writing skills;
There are different kinds of writing skills, the following are some of them;
i) Comprehensibility skills
ii) Fluency skills
iii) Creativity skills
TECHNIQUES OF WRITING SKILLS
The following are some techniques of writing skills;
· Description
A writer can help the reader to use his senses of feeling, seeing, hearing, smelling and tasting to experience what the writer experiences. Description also helps the reader to clearly understand the people, places and things about which the writer is writing.
It is the most common form of writing because you will find descriptive writing in newspapers, magazines, books and most other forms of written communication.
· Exposition
A writer informs, explains and clarifies his/her ideas and thoughts. Exposition goes beyond description to help the reader understand with greater clarity and depth the ideas and thoughts of the writer.
Expository writing like descriptive writing is commonly found in newspapers, magazines, books and most other forms of written communication.
· Narration
A writer tells a story. A story has characters, setting, time, problem, and attempts at solving them or trying to find a solution to the problem. Short stories are like bedtime stories and long stories are like novels. The scripts written for movies and plays are further examples of narrative writing.
· Persuasion
A writer tries to change a readers point of view on a topic, subject or position.
The writer presents facts and opinions to get the reader to understand why something is right, wrong or in-between. Editorials, letters to the editor in newspapers and magazines and the text for a political speech are examples of persuasive writing.
· Comparison and Contrast
A writer points out the similarities and differences about a topic. To show what is alike or similar by use of comparison and to show what is not alike or not in common by use of contrast. Describing living conditions in 1900 and living conditions today would allow for much comparison and contrast.
NOTE TAKING
Note taking is the practice of recording information captured from a transient source such as an oral discussion, at a meeting or a lecture. Notes of a meeting are usually called minutes.
Note taking is an important skill for students especially at the college level. Many different formats are used to structure information and make it easier to find and to understand later.
Taking notes in class
Note taking in class depends on three things. These are ears, hands and brain. The dictated notes are perceived by the ears and transferred to the hand without stopping in the brain for analysis.
Some techniques in note taking
- Write notes in point form with separate sub headings.
- Develop your own shorthand e.g.
| Shorthand | Meaning |
| => | lead to/look at |
| @ | at/each |
| i.e. | in other words/ that is to say |
| ↑ | rise |
| Temp | temperature |
| ∆ | change |
· Leave plenty of space between your notes for later additions.
· Jot down any references given in class to read later.
NOTE MAKING
Note making means writing down notes from a written source such as books, newspapers, periodical, etc
SOME HINTS ON NOTE MAKING
· Do not write down everything that you read. Be alert and attentive to the main points. Concentrate on the important part of the subject and forget the extra information added.
· Notes should consist of key words or very short sentences. If a speaker gets sidetracked/delay it is often possible to go back and add further information.
EXERCISE
1. Identify with examples the two styles of note-taking and indicate which one you find more effective for your students to use when revising for final examination. Give reasons for your choice.
2. Explain five advantages and disadvantages of making notes on books or handout.
Chapter four LETTER WRITING
A letter is a written or printed sign with a massage to present. It can also be described as a piece of writing which is addressed to a person and is organized in a logical way to convey information. A letter can be transmitted by use of a messenger or it can be transmitted by mail. There are mainly two types of letters, which are;
a) Informal/friendly/personal letter
b) and Formal/business/official letter
Elements of a good letter
The most important element of writing a good letter is the ability to identify and write to the audience. If the letter is addressed to the department of human resources, avoid using highly technical terms that only engineers would understand, even if the letter is addressed to an engineering company. Chances are that the personnel in human resources do not have an engineering background.
INFORMAL/FRIENDLY/PERSONAL LETTERS
This is the way of communicating between two people or sometimes more who are usually familiar. There are many uses and reasons for writing a personal letter, but usually a personal letter will consist of topics on a personal level and sometimes the use of informal language. Friendly letter can either be printed or hand-written.
Five parts of a friendly or informal letter
Informal/friendly or personal letter has five parts;
i) The heading
ii) The salutation(greeting)
iii) The main body
iv) The closing/ending
v) The signature line
Examples of openings, signaling the end and letter closings
Openings
Thanks for your letter.
- It was great to get your letter.
- Im writing to ask you a favour.
Signaling the end
- I must go now.
- Looking forward to hearing from you.
Letter closings
- Love you.
- Hope to hear from you soon..
Friendly letter format
FORMAL/BUSINESS/OFFICIAL LETTERS
Official letters are letters exchanged between or among peoples for purposes or transacting a business. The correspondence may know each other (not necessarily) but the tone of the letter must remain formal.
Parts of a business letter
There are six (6) parts to a business letter
- The heading
- The inside address (the address of the person you are writing to)
- The greeting (salutation)
- The body
- The complimentary close
- The signature line
THE ADRESS FORMAT
There are two address format of writing a business letter;
1. The block format. The block format is where both the address of the sender and the recipient are aligned on the left hand side of the page.
2. Semi block format. Semi block format is where the address of the sender occupies the top right hand side of the page while the recipient address occupies the left hand side just below the senders address.
EXERCISE
1. Write a letter to your principal requesting for teaching materials that are not available in your school
2. Write a letter to your friend telling him/her the challenges you are facing in your
teaching process
3. Identify the parts of formal letter and show how it differs from that of informal
letter.
Chapter five ORAL PRESENTATION
Oral presentation skills are indispensable communication skills in academic and professional life. Through them, we build and enhance mutual relationship, team spirit, efficiency and effectiveness.
An effective presentation requires thorough planning and practice and utilization of specific delivery techniques. For example, exhibiting confidence, credibility, eloquence, vocal expressiveness, body language and listening skills.
Presentation preparation
Preparing for a presentation usually involves clear distinct stages which include;
a) Determine the objective(s) of the presentation
b) Analyze the audience
We have four categories of audience which include;
i) The prisoner audience
ii) The graduate audience
iii) The holiday maker audience
iv) The student audience
Audience characteristics
Audience characteristics are grouped into three (3) categories; these are,
i) Demographic characteristics e.g. age, religion, gender
ii) Situational factors e.g. audience size, their attention and disposition towards you, topic and occasion.
c) Selecting the method of delivery
d) Gathering information on the subject of your presentation
e) Gathering visual aids
f) Preparing a suitable introduction.
g) The closing/conclusion
h) Rehearsing your presentation
i) Building confidence
j) Exhibiting credibility
k) Exhibiting eloquence
l) Vocal ability
m) Body language
TYPES OF ORAL PRESENTATION
There are two types of oral presentation. They include;
1. Impromptu speaking
2. Planned speaking
GENERAL PURPOSES OF ORAL PRESENTATION
As mentioned above, there are three purposes of an oral presentation. These are to inform, to entertain and to persuade or influence. This happens via several routes or approaches. The aim could be to;
i) Change the direction of existing attitude
ii) Increase the intensity of existing attitude
iii) Obtain behavioral response
NB. The three purposes are entertained with and within each other.
To inform/instruct
To inform means that you tell someone about something or to give them information about
something. To inform means that you want your listeners to comprehend an idea that is new
to them.
To entertain
To entertain means that you give a performance that people enjoy. If you want to entertain, you have the duty of making the listeners relax and enjoy the occasion.
Qualities of a good speaker
a) Competence
b) Trustworthiness
c) Similarity
d) Attraction
The sources of attraction/avoidance include;
● Prejudice
● Appearance
● Audiences recognition of the speakers positive self concept
NB. Emphasize and stress on factors/issues that will cause listeners to like or be attracted to you.
Methods of oral presentation
There are various ways or methods of oral presentation, these are;
a) Extemporaneous speech
b) Memorized speech
c) Scripted speech
MAIN PARTS OF ORAL PRESENTATION
An oral presentation consists of three main parts. These are the introduction, the body and conclusion.A: An introduction
B: The body
C: The conclusion
The presentation should be concluded with a well planned ending. There are four points to consider when you plan your ending;
i) Summary
ii) Emotional response
iii) Recommendations
iv) Exit line
THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN MAKING AN ORAL PRESENTATION
When making an oral presentation in class, you must know your subject well and convince your audience that they have something to gain from listening to you. The following are the things to consider when making an oral presentation;
i) Be prepared
ii) Know your audience
iii) Be positive
iv) Do not read your presentation
v) Provide examples
vi) Use visual aids
vii) Maintain eye contact
viii) Actively involve your audience
ix) Use your voice effectively
x) End on a high note
Effectiveness and ineffectiveness of oral presentation
An efficient/effective speaker should observe a number of skills so as to meet his/her objective(s).
The skills guide the speaker in terms of how to present the already prepared content or an unplanned content.
The success or failure of a presentation mainly depends on the manner of presentation. This includes the following;
a) Voice projection
b) Non-verbal communication
c) Eye contact
c) Stage presence/movement
EXERCISE
1. Conduct a survey in your school and make a list of forms of oral presentations carried out by teachers and students
2. Briefly explain things to consider when making an oral presentation
3. Compare oral presentations made by teachers and students with poor communication skills to those made by teachers and students with good mastery of communication skills
4. Prepare an outline of a speech to present to your students bidding them farewell after your teaching practice presentation?
Chapter six
READING SKILLS
Reading is the process of recognizing written or printed words and understanding their meaning. This involves the process of extracting meaning from a written or printed text.
Reading skills are specific abilities which enable a reader to read the written form as meaningful language, to read anything written with independence, comprehension, fluency and to mentally interact with the message.
EFFICIENT READING SKILLS
Reading involves the use of the eyes or sensitivity and brain. You need to use more of your brain in order to read fast. Reading fast means reading efficiently. This means that you avoid wasting time and using your eyes or sensitivity and brain together. To do this, you need to read purposefully and interactively.
Reading is purposeful
The way you read something depends on your purpose. Secondly, you read different texts in different ways. You usually know why you are reading in everyday life, may be you have a question and you read to find the answer.
Reading is an interactive process
Reading is a two way process. As a reader you are not passive but active. This means that you have to work at constructing the meaning from the marks on the paper which you use as necessary. You construct the meaning using your knowledge of the language, your subject and the world, continually predicting and assessing.
THE SQ3R READING STRATEGY
The SQ3R is the method designed to help people become more active in their reading and better prepared for class, have a better grasp of the material and perform better on exams as well. It is just one technique that can be used to retain information. The abbreviation SQ3R stands for survey, question, read, recall and review. All these stands for effective reading skills as follows,
i) Survey
ii) Question
iii) Read
iv) Recite
v) Review
TYPES OF READING SKILLS
There are four types of reading skills used in everyday academic life. These are: skimming, scanning, extensive reading and intensive reading.
Skimming
Scanning
Extensive reading
Intensive reading
Ways to help students/children to become more effective readers
Generally, reading skills are developed from the family life, nothing is more important to academic achievement than being a good reader.
Parents know their children best and can provide a one-on-one time and attention that will lead them to success in reading. The following are the ways to help your students/children become more effective readers;
a) Set aside a regular time to read to your children every day
b) Surround your children with reading materials
c) Have a family reading time
d) Encourage a wide variety of reading activities
e) Develop the library habit
f) Be knowledgeable about your childrens progress
g) Look for reading problems
h) Get help promptly for reading problems
i) Use a variety of aids to help your children
j) Show enthusiasm for your childrens reading
EXERCISE
1. What reading style do you apply when you want to get general information from a written material?
2. What reading style do you apply when you are looking for specific information from a written material?
Chapter seven
RESUME AND CURRICULUM VITAE (CV)
A resume is a document that individuals use to present their background and skill sets. It can be used for a variety of reasons but mostly it is used to secure new employment since it contains a summary of relevant job experience(s) and education.
In many contexts, a resume is short i.e. it usually has one to three pages which directs the readers attention to the aspects of a persons background that are directly relevant to a particular position.
Parts of a resume
a) Your full name
b) Your contact information (home address and person address if any)
c) Your objective
d) Your education background
e) Your experience
f) Honors and activities
Ways of organizing a resume
The following are the common formats of organizing a resume;
i) Reverse chronological resume
ii) Functional resume
iii) Hybrid resume
CURRICULUM VITAE (CV)
The term curriculum vitae come from the Latin word Curriculum (course) and Vitae (life) which means the course of ones life. The plural of curriculum vitae are curricula vitarum which meant the courses of lives.
A curriculum vita provides an overview of a persons life and qualification. It is typically the first item that a potential employer encounters regarding the job seeker and is also typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview when seeking employment in some countries.
Components of curriculum vitae
Generally, the curriculum vita is typically organized and contains the following information/components;
a) Personal information
It includes the following
b) Contacts
It includes the following;
c) Objective
d) Education
e) Skills/abilities
f) Work experience
g) Languages
h) Referees
SAMPLE OF CURRICULUM VITAE (CVs)
Sample 1
| Kibakuri Mutani. BAED 2011 Curriculum Vitae Personal Information Full Name: Kibakuri Mutani Kisonzo Date of Birth: February 20, 1979 Nationality: Tanzanian Marital Status: Single Contacts kibamutani@yahoo.com Kibakuri K. Mutani +255700000000 P.O.BOX 000 Mwanza Tanzania Objective To work with an organization that offers challenging and dynamic surrounding with a chance of future career development. Education Montessori Teachers Training College July 2008 May 2010 Bachelor of Arts with Education Major Courses Covered: ● Principles of Education ● Communication Skills ● Introduction to Philosophy ● Introduction to Educational Psychology ● Social Science Education Methods ● Principles of Curriculum Development and Teaching ● Education Measurement and Evaluation ● Education Media and Technology ● Education Management and Administration ● Counseling and Special Needs Education ● Sociology of Education ● Research Paper Buhima Secondary School, 2004 - 2006 TanzaniaAdvanced Certificate of Secondary Education Examination Major subjects covered: ● Pure Mathematics ● Geography ● Economics Maria Montessori Secondary School, 1999 - 2003 Tanzania Certificate of Secondary Education Examination Skills/ Abilities Good Computer Skills ● Introduction to Windows ● Management of Files ● Ms Word ● Ms Excel ● Ms Access ● Ms Power Point ● Email and Internet Good Communication and interpersonal skills Excellent time management skills Excellent listening skills Excellent Customer Services Skills Good Negotiation Skills Adaptable Work Experience Bunda Teachers Training College July 2010 - Present Position. Teacher Duties ● Teaching Communication Skills Iseki Secondary School July 2010 Present Position. Teacher Duties ● Teaching English and Geography ● Sports Master All these roles have enabled me to acquire vast skills in terms of interpersonal communication and customer service skills. Languages Language ● English ● Swahili REFEREES Referee Relation Contact Mr. Mabucha Manyama Seniour Academic Officer Mobile: +255700000000 Nyahihi Secondary School P.O. BOX 0000 Mwanza Mrs. Matoke Matuku Asst. Store Supervisor Tel: +255280000000 Supply Chain Department Mobile: +255700000000 Nkende Company Email: matoketuku@yahoo.com P.O.BOX 000 Musoma Mr. Rukili Manyembe Head of Geography Department Mobile: +25570000000 University of Mwanza Tanzania Email: universitymwanza@yahoo.com P.O. BOX 000 Mwanza |
EXERCISE
1. Identify and explain the components of curriculum vitae.
2. By using the chronological style, write your own CV.
3. What are the uses of curriculum vitae?
4. Differentiate between a resume and curriculum vitae.
Chapter eight REFERENCING SKILLS
Referencing skills involves reference in the text (citation).
A citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source but not always the original source. A bibliographic citation is a reference to a book, article, web page or other published item. Citation content can vary depending on the type of source such as book, journal, newspaper, web site, play, poem etc.
Without reference to the work of other academics or subject specialists in the field, will have little information to support the understanding of anything. In order to aid (more) understanding of any subject, it is essential to refer to the work of others who have contributed to the development of that field.
In the case where students use original words or ideas from materials without providing details of the source, they have plagiarized and it is considered to be an act of stealing other peoples words and ideas.
Plagiarism is considered to be a serious academic offence and sometime will not be published. If a student is found to have committed plagiarism, he/she will usually be awarded a fail for the assignment and asked to re-write it, sometime a student may be excluded from the programme at all.
Ways of writing a reference in the text (citation)
a) If the reference name naturally forms part of a sentence, then include it exactly as if no reference is being given. Follow the name by a space and the full year of publication inclosed in parentheses.
For example;
(i) Carson (1970) argued that
(ii) The system developed by Brown & Smith (1986) is
(iii) Carsons (1970) paper argues
(iv) A paper by Carson (1970) argues
(v) Jones (1980, 1983, 1987) has repeatedly argued that
b) If the reference name does not form a natural part of sentence, include both the name and the year enclosed in parentheses at an appropriate point in the sentence.
For example;
(i) An earlier paper (Carson 1970) argues that
(ii) The ARGA program (Brown & Smith 1986) is
(iii) Both Brown & Smith (1986) and Carson (1970) argue
(iv) One possible definition (Brown 1980, p.12) is
Referencing system
The main referencing systems which are used in academic text
a) Footnotes and Endnotes
Footnotes or Endnotes are marked in the text by a number which should come at the end of a sentence and not to be inserted into the middle of it. Example of list of reference/bibliography;
1.
Chris Macqueen, Getting Ahead in Tertiary Study, Sydney: UNSW Press, 1998,
p.6
2.
Macqueen, Getting Ahead in Tertiary Study, p.38
b) The Vancouver style (numeric system)
This reference system also uses numbers to indicate sections of text where the author has incorporated source material. The numbers relate to a list of references at the end of the text which correspond with the numerical order of the marked sections. Examples of the list of references/bibliography;
1.
Joseph, B (2005) Environmental Studies, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited, India.
2.
Muthoka, M.G (1998) Environmental Education. Longhorn Kenya Ltd, Nairobi.
3.
Hall, B (2004) Online at: http: //www.bournemouth.ac.uk/centre-for-academic-
practice/Plagiarism%20and%20International%20Students.doc Accessed 30 June
2006
4.
Macqueen, C (1998) Getting Ahead in Tertiary Study Sydney: UNSW Press
c) Harvard system (author-date method) in text referencing
The Harvard system differs from both footnotes or endnotes and the Vancouver systems because it does not use numbers to reference incorporation of source material. The authors surname and date of publication of material (plus optional page numbers) are given in brackets after citation. The same format is used for books, journals, dissertations and theses.
In the Harvard System, individual entries in the List of References are given in alphabetical order according to the first letter of the surname. Example of the list of reference/bibliography;
Joseph, B (2005). Environmental studies, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited, India.
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (1999). Disposal of Industrial Wastewater
and Alternatives, 520 Lafayette Road North, St Paul.
Otiende, J.E & Ezaza, V.P (1997). An Introduction to Environmental Education,
Nairobi University Press, Nairobi.
Waugh, D (2002), An Integrated Approuch(3[SUP]rd[/SUP] Edition), Nelson 2000, United
Kingdom.
Reference to a book
Book with one author
Book with two authors
Book with three authors
Book with more than three authors
Edited book
Book with more than one edition
List of references and bibliography
References list gives details of the books and articles that have been mentioned in a text. It should contain all of them and not anything that have read or looked at but not mentioned.
Bibliography is a list of books and articles putted together for some other purpose. It usually help the researchers and/or as recommended reading for study.
Reference to a published work
Reference to unpublished work
Reference to personal communication
Reference to a journal
Reference to newspaper articles
Reference to films, videos and broadcasts
Reference to World Wide Web
EXERCISE
1. a. Identify types of citations and quotations.
b. Use different citations and quotations to write a text about
environmental pollution.
2. Prepare a term paper of the heading school library and write a list of references/bibliography you have cited the information.
3. Why is Harvard system used mostly in text referencing than Vancouver and Footnotes/Endnotes?
4. What are the main parts to consider when writing a reference to a book?
Chapter nine
PUNCTUATION
Punctuation is the name for marks used in writing. Punctuation marks are symbols that indicate the structure and organization of written language as well as intonation and pauses to be observed when reading aloud.
Punctuation marks are used to structure and organize writing because it creates sense, clarity and stress in sentence. There are many kinds of punctuation marks and these help with understanding and it can also remove ambiguity.
COMMON PUNCTUATION MARKS USED IN WRITING
The following are some common punctuation marks used in writing;
1. A period or full stop: ●
Some uses of a period or full stop
2. Comma:
Some uses of comma
3. Question mark ?
Some uses of question mark
4. Exclamation mark: !
Some uses of exclamation mark
5. Apostrophe: ʼ
There are two main uses of an apostrophe
i) Ownership
- Used to show that something belongs to something else. If there is only one, the letter s is used after an apostrophe to show ownership.
ii) Contractions
- An apostrophe can be used to put two small words together. Two small words that are put together with an apostrophe to make one word are called contractions. This is normal in writing about a person speaking. It often uses contractions because these words are easier to say.
Some common mistakes when using apostrophes
(a) Pronouns
(b) Plural
6. Quotation marks:
Some uses of quotation marks
7. Colon: :
Some uses of colon
8. Semicolon: ;
Some uses of semicolon
9. Ellipsis:
Some uses of ellipsis
10. Hyphen: -
Some uses of hyphen in writing
EXERCISE
1. a) Define the term punctuation.
b) Define the term punctuation marks.
2. What are the uses of the following punctuation marks?
a) Colon
b) Question mark
c) Ellipsis
d) Full stop
e) Comma
3. With examples, differentiate the following punctuation marks.
a) Colon and Hyphen
b) Question mark and Semicolon
c) Ellipsis and Quotation mark
d) Ellipsis and Apostrophe
e) Full stop and Exclamation mark
To be continued .
